How tariffs could break America

“To me, the most beautiful word in the dictionary is tariff….it’s my favorite word.” ~ Donald Trump, October 2024

Americans’ experience with tariffs is mixed. The Smoot-Hawley tariffs of the 1930s prompted retaliatory tariffs and trade barriers from trading partners, causing a collapse in international trade that badly hurt US manufacturers. The tariffs were misguided because, at the time, the US ran large trade surpluses, which made it vulnerable to retaliation.

Now the US runs large trade deficits, of between $60 and $100 billion per month, which makes it far more difficult for trading partners to retaliate effectively.

US Monthly Trade Deficit (billions)

Stephen Miran, Trump’s nominee for chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, wrote a 40-page “job application” in October. In it, he praises Trump’s past performance with tariffs in 2018 and proposes restructuring the global trade system. However, misguided use of tariffs could damage the US.

Miran proposes implementing import tariffs, mainly targeting those trade partners that run large trade surpluses with the US, notably China. China’s global trade surplus has expanded to more than $100 billion per month, and a large percentage of this trade is with the US.

China: Monthly Trade Surplus

Import Tariffs

A tariff on imports will likely provoke two main responses: retaliatory trade barriers and a stronger Dollar.

Retaliation

We can expect trading partners to erect trade barriers to target politically sensitive industries in the US. In the 1930s, Europe responded with import restrictions on US automobiles, hurting the Ford Motor Company. Nowadays, China will likely restrict exports of critical materials in markets it dominates—like germanium, gallium, and rare earth elements—targeting semiconductors, electric batteries, and defense technologies. Another Chinese favorite is tariffs on agricultural imports like soybeans, targeting mid-west farmers. Electric vehicle imports are another obvious target, particularly Tesla because of Elon Musk’s proximity to the president.

Tesla (TSLA) has fallen 39% from its high in December.

Tesla (TSLA)

The Dollar

The Dollar will likely strengthen if trading partners do not retaliate against increased tariffs. A stronger Dollar will tend to offset the cost of the tariff to consumers, as in 2018-2019, when the Yuan weakened markedly against the Dollar.

Yuan per US Dollar

The result was that the US current account showed little benefit from the 2018-2019 tariffs.

US Current Account Deficit

To the extent that the exchange rate adjusts to absorb the effect of the tariff–so that the Dollar price of the imported goods does not change–the tariff is effectively a tax on the foreign exporter. However, the cost incidence is not that straightforward.

Cost Incidence

A central argument for tariffs is that the exporter, not the US consumer, bears the cost. However, it’s not that simple.

Miran cites a 2019 NBER paper by Cavallo, Gopinath, Neiman and Tang which found that the dollar import price increased by the amount of 2018-2019 tariffs, and that appreciation of the Dollar did little to offset this. “The move in the currency didn’t pass through into import prices.”

Pass Through of Tariffs to Import Prices

While Miran is correct that there may be longer-term adjustments, the study makes an important distinction. US producers responding to retaliatory tariffs on their exports were forced to bear a large percentage of the cost. Export prices for affected goods (red below) fell sharply relative to exports without tariffs (blue).

Affect of Retaliatory Tariffs on Export Prices

The difference is that US agricultural exports were a non-differentiated product with ready substitutes. China imposed a tariff on US soybean imports, comfortable in the knowledge that importers would increase orders from alternative suppliers like Brazil. So US farmers were forced to cut prices to compete.

The tariff cost for differentiated products, with no ready substitutes, such as high-level semiconductors and equipment, is far more likely to be borne by the customer.

Weakening the Dollar

Miran recognizes that the strong Dollar will harm exports and speculates that strategies could be employed to weaken the Dollar. However, that would increase the cost incidence on the consumer.

Efforts to weaken the Dollar would likely undermine its role as the global reserve currency and accelerate the migration of foreign central bank reserves to gold bullion as a reserve asset.

There are three likely negative consequences. First, a falling dollar would reduce foreign support for US Treasury markets, driving up long-term interest rates that would hurt financial markets and the economy.

Second, discouraging direct foreign investment in US financial markets—by tearing up tax treaties, for example —would cause an outflow from mega-cap technology stocks, Treasuries, and other key foreign investment targets. The result could crash financial markets and the economy.

Third, printing Dollars to buy assets in a sovereign wealth fund or other strategies that involve increased fiscal spending are likely to fuel an increase in inflation.

Weakening the Dollar may also involve lowering US interest rates vis-a-vis trading partners. However, this assumes that foreign central banks will not respond in kind and that the Fed will cooperate, ignoring the inflation risk.

Re-industrialization

The aim of tariffs is to create a favorable environment for establishing new industry. However, there are many barriers other than the price of competitive imports.

First, you need a skilled workforce with the education and training required to run new factories. Companies establishing semiconductor foundries in the US, for example, under President Joe Biden’s CHIPS and Science Act, have encountered skills shortages. (The Economist)

Then you need infrastructure. ALCOA, the largest aluminum producer in the US, relocated smelters to Canada because of advantageous electricity costs. CEO Bill Oplinger says the increased tariffs would not entice it to return. (Reuters)

You also need to secure the key materials required to support new industries, whether bauxite to supply aluminum smelters, copper for EVs and turbines, or critical materials–like gallium, germanium, and rare earth elements– for high-tech industry. China has spent the last two decades tying up supply contracts, and the US is a late arrival to the party.

Conclusion

Tariffs on imports will likely provoke retaliatory tariffs from trading partners, which could harm international trade and exact a cost on both economies. The US is in a strong position because of its large trade deficit; so it can inflict greater damage on its competitor. However, we should not ignore other forms of retaliation like restricting access to critical materials, where there are no ready substitutes, and erecting other trade barriers that impose a cost on US exporters.

Under no circumstances should tariffs be placed on imports of goods where there is no readily-available substitute. The US consumer will bear the cost.

The Dollar will also likely strengthen in response to US tariffs on imports, which could partially offset the cost of the tariff to consumers. However, a strong Dollar will reduce the competitiveness of US manufacturers in export markets. Miran speculates that the US may be able to offset this by policies to weaken the Dollar. But you can’t have your cake and eat it too.

Efforts to weaken the Dollar could also undermine its role as the global reserve currency, crash financial markets and the economy, or cause a resurgence of inflation. If not all three.

A strategy to re-industrialize the US economy requires a holistic approach. First, ensure that you build up the necessary skills and resources through a comprehensive education and infrastructure program and secure supplies of key materials. Then, progress to the next stage of establishing the groundwork for a new global trade and currency accord. Ignoring the first stage is like putting the cart before the horse.

An impatient president has surrounded himself with a team unlikely to oppose him. Developing a program to re-industrialize the economy will require skill, patience, and meticulous planning. It could take the better part of a decade, but that seems unlikely to happen.

Acknowledgments

Why Australian CPI is understated

CPI grew by 2.5% (Y/Y) in January 2025 while the trimmed mean increased slightly to 2.8%, still comfortably within the RBA’s 3.0% target.

Australian CPI & Trimmed Mean CPI

However, the Labor government has found a neat trick to make inflation appear lower while also boosting GDP growth figures.

According to the ABS, electricity prices are falling. The CPI measure shows a 35% drop for the 12 months to October 2024, with prices still declining year-on-year despite a 22.0% increase in November and an 8.9% increase in January.

Australian CPI: Electricity

The chart below shows that actual prices (light blue) increased by 17% since June 2023, while the official figures (dark blue) show an 8.0% decline.

Australian CPI: Electricity Costs & Rebates

The difference is government electricity rebates, which are offset against actual electricity costs:

a) Introduction of the 2023-24 Energy Bill Relief Fund (EBRF) rebates

b) Introduction of the first instalment of 2024-25 Commonwealth rebates for all households in QLD and WA, and State rebates in QLD, WA and TAS

c) Introduction of the first instalment of 2024-25 Commonwealth rebates for all households in NSW, VIC, SA, TAS, NT and ACT

d) Introduction of the second instalment of 2024-25 Commonwealth rebates for all households in NSW, VIC, QLD, SA, TAS, NT and ACT

e) Introduction of the second instalment of 2024-25 Commonwealth rebates and State rebate for all households in WA

f) Introduction of the third instalment of 2024-25 Commonwealth rebates for all households in NSW, VIC, QLD, SA, TAS, NT and ACT

Australians have been pushed into higher tax brackets by inflation and, rather than lower tax rates, the government gives you a rebate on your electricity bill. It makes no difference to the consumer, but it makes a difference to the government facing an election where inflation is one of the key issues. Not only does the rebate make inflation look lower, but it is classed as government expenditure in the national accounts, and is added to GDP making growth look higher.

It is such a neat trick; they used it more than once.

Rent inflation is another politically sensitive subject. The official figures show rent inflation declined to 5.8% (Y/Y) after peaking at 7.8% in August 2023.

Australian CPI: Rent

Low vacancy rates and tight rental markets have driven up rents in most capital cities. However, according to official figures, rent inflation slowed to a 0.1% rise in September 2024, followed by a 0.3% fall in October. The fall was due to an increase in Commonwealth Rent Assistance (CRA). From 20 September, the maximum rate available for rent assistance was increased by 10% on top of the usual biannual CPI indexation, reducing rents for eligible tenants.

Actual Rent prices increased by 0.5% in September and October 2024, excluding the CRA changes, a 0.6% difference.

In the previous year, a 15% increase in the maximum CRA rate reduced the official measure by 1.5% over September-October 2023.

Conclusion

Electricity inflation was understated by 14% (18% actual – 4% CPI) in the 12 months to January 2024 and by 10.7% in the 12 months to January 2025.

Rent inflation was understated by 1.5% in the 12 months to January 2024 and 0.6% in the 12 months to January 2025.

Headline CPI is understated by 0.68% over the last two years.

Acknowledgments

Notes

  1. The impact of electricity and rental understatement on CPI was 0.42% in the year to January 2024 (weightings of 2.36% and 6.03%, respectively) and 0.24% in January 2025 (weightings of 1.84% and 6.61%, respectively).

Regime change in America

This article by Anne Applebaum in The Atlantic is confronting:

There’s a Term for What Trump and Musk Are Doing – How regime change happens in America

She describes the destruction of the 100-year-old US civil service and its replacement with a patronage system in which appointees must demonstrate fealty to a patron—either President Trump or Elon Musk—rather than the Constitution.

Anne has written extensively on autocracies. Her early books include Red Famine: Stalin’s War on Ukraine, Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe 1944–1956, and Gulag: A History, which won the 2004 Pulitzer Prize for nonfiction. She is also the author of the recent New York Times best-sellers Twilight of Democracy and Autocracy, Inc: The Dictators Who Want to Run the World.

Conclusion

We are witnessing the end of an era. The damage done in the next two years is unlikely ever to be restored.

ASX Weekly Market Snapshot

Bull-Bear Market Indicator
Stock Market Pricing Indicator

The dial on the left indicates bull or bear market status, while the one on the right reflects stock market drawdown risk.

Bull/Bear Market

The ASX Bull-Bear Market indicator remains at 64%, with two of five leading indicators signaling Risk-off, while the US leading index remains at 60%:

Bull-Bear Market Indicator

This was covered in more detail last week.

Stock Pricing

This is our first publication of the ASX stock pricing indicator, currently at the 88.31 percentile. The high reading warns that stocks are at risk of a significant drawdown.

Stock Market Value Indicator

The Stock Pricing indicator compares stock prices to long-term sales, earnings, and economic output to gauge market risk. We use z-scores to measure each indicator’s current position relative to its history, with the result expressed in standard deviations from the mean. We then calculate an average for the five readings and convert that to a percentile. The higher that stock market pricing is relative to its historical mean, the greater the risk of a sharp drawdown.

Value Indicators

The Warren Buffett indicator compares stock market capitalization to GDP. By comparing market value to total output, it eliminates fluctuations due to profit margins, providing a more stable long-term ratio. The 86.13% percentile indicates the ratio is high compared to its long-term mean of 1.02.

ASX Market Capitalization/GDP

We only have limited data for the ASX 20 forward PE, but this still provides a useful measure of current value. We use a 20% trimmed mean to remove the most extreme readings in the index, which tend to distort the average.

ASX 20 Forward PE with 20% Trimmed Mean

A similar measure is used on the price-to-sales ratio for the ASX 20. The 20% trimmed mean of 4.49 is close to its 2021 high.

ASX 20 Price to Sales with 20% Trimmed Mean

The price-earnings ratio is based on the latest trailing earnings (blue below), which can generate extreme readings when earnings fall sharply, as in 2020. We use a second pe-ratio based on highest trailing earnings to eliminate the extremes. However, the large resources sector, with higher-than-normal earnings volatility, necessitates using both ratios to provide a more balanced view.

ASX Price Earnings Ratio of Highest Trailing Earnings

The current dividend yield of 3.77% is below the long-term mean of 4.11%. We use a reverse z-score for the ASX dividend yield, as lower yields indicate higher valuations (similar to high PE ratios).

ASX Dividend Yield

Conclusion

We are borderline in a bull market, with the bull-bear indicator at 64%.

Stock pricing remains high, increasing the risk of a significant drawdown.

Acknowledgments

Strong uptrends in stocks and gold

A longer-term view, with weekly charts, shows stocks and gold in a healthy bull market. The energy sector is bearish, indicating low short- to medium-term inflation, as are industrial metals.

Stocks

The S&P 500 closed above 6100, signaling a fresh advance. Expect retracement to test the new support level, but respect will likely confirm a target of 6400.

S&P 500

Mega-cap technology stocks are the primary driver, with large caps lagging. Lower Trend Index peaks on the S&P 500 equal-weighted index ($IQX) warn of selling pressure, and another test of primary support at 7000 is likely.

S&P 500 Equal-Weighted Index

Financial Markets

Bitcoin consolidates above 90K, indicating stable liquidity in financial markets.

Bitcoin (BTC)

Treasury Markets

The 10-year Treasury yield signals another test of support at 4.4%. Respect is more likely, and another test of 4.8% would be bearish for stocks.

10-Year Treasury Yield

Dollar & Gold

The Dollar Index has weakened in the last two weeks as the Trump administration threatens to disrupt the global trading system with increased tariffs. Respect of support at 106 remains likely, but a breach would offer a target of 102.

Dollar Index

Gold is in a strong uptrend. The current retracement will likely respect support at $2,800 per ounce, confirming our target of $3,000.

Spot Gold

Energy

Crude is in a bear market, with Nymex WTI crude respecting resistance at $80 per barrel. We expect crude to remain range-bound for most of the year.

Nymex WTI Crude

We are long-term bulls on uranium, but there are no buy opportunities. The Sprott Physical Uranium Trust (SRUUF) confirmed the bear market, breaking support at 16 to signal another decline.

Sprott Physical Uranium Trust (SRUUF)

Copper

Copper rallied strongly over the last two weeks, testing resistance near 10K. However, the move is not driven by an increase in end-user demand. From Mining.com:

Worries that US President Donald Trump may impose tariffs on copper had spurred traders and investors to buy copper on the US COMEX exchange and sell on the LME.

Short or bearish positions on the LME are being cut or rolled over ahead of settlement on Wednesday, turning discounts for nearby copper contracts against those further along the maturity into premiums or backwardations.

Copper

Iron & Steel

Iron ore continues its gradual downtrend.

Iron Ore

Australia

The ASX 200 recovered above resistance at 8500, confirming a medium-term target of 8900.

ASX 200 Index

Conclusion

US and Australian stocks are in an uptrend, supported by strong liquidity in financial markets. However, the Trump administration’s trade policies have unsettled markets, making them susceptible to higher-than-normal volatility.

Bonds are in a bear market, and the 10-year Treasury yield is expected to resume its uptrend.

Gold continues in a strong uptrend, with demand driven by geopolitical changes. Respect of support at $2,800 per ounce would confirm our short-term target of $3,000.

Industrial metals remain in a bear market due to weak demand from China.

 

 

 

Big Picture reading: Ukraine

Here is some interesting analysis on Donald Trump and his “peace plan” for Ukraine:

Phillips O’Brien, professor of strategic studies at University of St Andrews, Scotland: What Europe Can do in a Worst-Case Scenario

Nataliya Gumenyuk, Ukrainian journalist and co-founder of The Reckoning Project: Putin’s Ukraine – The End of War and the Price of Russian Occupation

Timothy Snyder, American historian and expert on European history: Crossing a line

Gold headed for $3,000

Gold broke short-term resistance at $2,900 per ounce, signaling a test of our $3,000 target. The precious metal advanced to $2,934 on the announcement of US tariffs on steel and aluminum. Uncertainty over the geopolitical outlook has increased volatility in global financial markets and demand for gold as a haven. Breakout above $3,000 would offer a medium-term target of $3,600.

Spot Gold

From the WSJ:

President Trump announced 25% tariffs on imports of steel and aluminum to the U.S., reinstating global duties without exceptions for allies such as Canada, Mexico, Japan and South Korea that were relaxed by the Biden administration.

Central bank purchases of bullion increased to 333 tonnes in Q4 of last year, according to the World Gold Council, with uncertainty over the US presidential election boosting demand.

Gold Purchases by Central Banks

Silver also caught a bid, testing resistance at $32 per ounce, but lags gold.

Spot Silver

Conclusion

Gold is headed for a test of $3,000 per ounce for the first time. Expect retracement to test new support at $2,900, but respect will likely confirm the advance to $3,000.

Breakout above $3,000 would offer a medium-term target of $3,600.

Uncertainty over US federal debt, long-term inflation, and geopolitical tensions drive demand.

Acknowledgments

Inflation spooks Treasuries and stocks

Rising inflation expectations and robust economic data mean the Fed will likely pause rate cuts for several months. Stocks reacted negatively, but gold seemed unfazed.

The US economy shows slow but steady growth, with total weekly hours worked growing at an annual rate of 1.0% compared to real GDP at 2.5% in 2024.

Real GDP & Total Hours Worked

Heavy truck sales, a reliable leading indicator, fell sharply in December but rebounded to a robust 44.5K in January.

Heavy Truck Sales

Another reliable leading indicator is employment in cyclical sectors, which also shows robust growth. In a recession, manufacturing, construction, and transportation & warehousing typically shed far more jobs than the rest of the economy.Employment in Cyclical Sectors: Manufacturing, Construction, and Transport & Warehousing

ISM Survey

ISM business surveys show continued expansion in the services sector in January.

ISM Services PMI

It was joined by a manufacturing recovery above 50% after 26 months of contraction.

ISM Manufacturing PMI

Labor Market

The labor market added a modest 143K jobs in January.

Employment Growth

However, the unemployment rate fell to 4.0% from 4.2% in November, possibly aided by a surge in deportations.

Unemployment

Average weekly hours worked fell to 34.1 for the first time since the 2020 pandemic. This typically serves as an early warning of increased layoffs. Employers first cut back hours before shedding staff.

Average Weekly Hours

Lower weekly hours is contradicted by the JOLTS report, which showed job openings exceeding unemployment in December.

Job Openings

Average Hourly Earnings

A sharp increase in average hourly earnings, showing 4.1% growth for the 12 months to January, will likely cause concern at the Fed.

Average Hourly Earnings

December earnings growth surprised, at close to 0.5% for the month or 5.7% annualized.

Average Hourly Earnings - Monthly

University of Michigan Survey

Consumer sentiment dipped slightly in February, with the 3-month moving average declining to 71. Sentiment remains below levels during the 2020 pandemic.

University of Michigan: Consumer Sentiment

The current economic conditions index declined to 68.7 in February, but the 3-month MA is still rising.

University of Michigan: Current Economic Conditions

Expectations are also falling, with the 3-month MA declining to 70.

University of Michigan: Consumer Expectations

Financial markets were spooked by the sharp jump in expected price increases in the next 12 months, which reached 4.3% in February, with the 3-month MA at 3.5%.

University of Michigan: 1-Year Inflation Expectations

Five-year inflation expectations are also rising, with the 3-month MA climbing to 3.2% in February.

University of Michigan: 5-Year Inflation Expectations

Treasury Market

Ten-year Treasury yields rallied in response to the stronger inflation outlook, testing resistance at 4.5%. Recovery above the descending trendline would warn of another advance.

10-Year Treasury Yield

Stocks

The S&P 500 fell sharply in response to the prospect of higher interest rates. Breach of 5850 would signal a test of primary support at 5800.

S&P 500

Dollar & Gold

The Dollar rallied, testing resistance at 108 in response to higher interest rates. Breakout would offer a short-term target of 110.

Dollar Index

Gold is retracing to test support at $2,850 per ounce. Respect would signal a test of $3,000.

Spot Gold

Silver broke its new support level at $32 per ounce, warning of retracement to test $30.

Spot Silver

Conclusion

Strong growth in average hourly earnings and rising consumer inflation expectations will likely cause the Fed to pause rate cuts until the current uptrend reverses. That could take more than six months.

10-year Treasury yields are expected to resume their uptrend. Recovery above 4.5% would confirm.

Rising long-term yields are bearish for stocks, with the S&P 500 likely to test primary support at 5800.

The Dollar Index is also expected to resume its uptrend. Breakout above 108 would signal another test of resistance at 110.

Gold is expected to continue its uptrend, with a breakout above $2,900 per ounce signaling a test of $3,000 for the first time. Rising inflation expectations and increased bullion holdings by foreign central banks will likely maintain a shortage of physical gold.

Acknowledgments

US Weekly Market Snapshot

Bull/Bear Market Indicator
Stock Market Pricing Indicator

The dial on the left indicates bull or bear market status, while the one on the right reflects stock market drawdown risk.

Bull/Bear Market

The Bull/Bear Market indicator rebounded to 60%, due to data revisions to heavy truck sales. Two of the five leading indicators now signal Risk-off:

Bull-Bear Market Indicator

Heavy truck sales were revised up to a seasonally adjusted 37,823 units in December, after an earlier report at 35,152 units. January sales jumped to a hot 44,499 units confirming that economic activity is not slowing.

Heavy Truck Sales (units)

This is the second time that a heavy trucks data revision has affected our model. We will investigate using a 3-month moving average to reduce the impact of revisions.

Stock Pricing

Stock pricing eased slightly to 97.75 from the 97.91 percentile two weeks ago. The extreme reading continues to warn that stocks are at risk of a significant drawdown.

Stock Market Value Indicator

The Stock Pricing indicator compares stock prices to long-term sales, earnings, and economic output to gauge market risk. We use z-scores to measure each indicator’s current position relative to its history, with the result expressed in standard deviations from the mean. We then calculate an average for the five readings and convert that to a percentile. The higher that stock market pricing is relative to its historical mean, the greater the risk of a sharp drawdown.

Conclusion

We are close to a bear market, with the bull-bear indicator revised to 60%. Stock pricing remains extreme, increasing the risk of a significant drawdown, warning not to increase exposure to risk assets like growth stocks.

Acknowledgments

Gold riding high as the Dollar weakens

A weakening Dollar has further boosted gold, lifting it above resistance at $2,800 per ounce. Treasury yields are also falling as anticipated inflation declines. However, volatility remains high, and we need to stay focused on the long-term trend.

Treasury Markets

Ten-year Treasury yields broke support at 4.5% with declining Trend index peaks indicating selling pressure. We expect a correction with a target of 4.2%.

10-Year Treasury Yield

The Dollar

The Dollar Index surprised, retreating below 108. Another test of support at 107 is likely, with declining Trend Index peaks indicating selling pressure.

Dollar Index

Gold and Silver

Gold soared to an intra-day high of $2,880 per ounce, with rising Trend Index troughs signaling strong buying pressure. The breakout offers a short-term target of $3,000. A retracement that respects new support at $2,800 would strengthen the signal.

Spot Gold

Silver broke resistance at $32 per ounce before retracing to test the new support level. Respect would confirm a target of $35.

Spot Silver

Conclusion

Donald Trump’s threat and quick reversal of tariffs on Canada and Mexico precipitated Dollar weakness in the past few sessions.

A deliberate strategy to weaken the Dollar would likely yield better results for the US than tariffs. Tariffs risk retaliation from trading partners and undermine domestic industry’s long-term competitiveness in export markets.

A public policy to weaken the Dollar would likely face bitter opposition from Wall Street, which has long profited from the Dollar as a global reserve currency. Behaving like a bull in a China shop, however, may achieve the same ends for Trump, while he can deny that it was ever his intention.

However, we should not trade hunches and need to base our strategy on what we can clearly see. The dollar index’s long-term trend remains upward.

Dollar Index

The Treasury market shows surprising strength, with the 10-year yield breaking support at 4.5%. Bond market reaction to Fed rate cuts last year drove long-term yields higher, but upward pressure has eased now that the Fed has paused. Fears of a rebound in inflation are fading, lowering the term premium.

The long-term view, however, shows a continued uptrend.

10-Year Treasury Yield

Lower Treasury yields and a weak Dollar are both bullish for gold, which has broken resistance at $2,800 per ounce and is likely to test $3,000 in the next few weeks.

Silver lags gold because of far larger industrial demand, which is not expected to expand at the same rate.